And is Belgium really the beacon of light among member states, particularly in these seemingly dark times for European integration? Brussels (Belgium) is considered the de facto capital of the European Union, having a long history of hosting a number of principal EU institutions within its European Quarter. As such, the city rightfully qualifies as the “political and administrative heart of the EU” (Deschouwer, 2012, p. 219). The system proves highly elastic, even resistant to challenge and change. It is, however, largely perceived as a “rather extreme and complex form of federalism” (Peters, 2006, p. 1083). The three official languages are Dutch, French, and German. Roosevelt, 50 1050 Bruxelles Belgium, http://www.netvibes.com/cdeurope#EDC_info, Boulevard du Roi Albert II, 5 1210 Bruxelles Belgium, http://www.etui.org/fr/Services/Le-centre-de-documentation-de-l-ETUI, Institut d'études européennes Blvd du jardin Botanique 43 1000 Bruxelles Belgium, Give feedback about this website or report a problem, Institutions, bodies & agencies – contact & visit details, Public contracts in the EU – rules and guidelines, Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS), The European Data Protection Board (EDPB). Advocating multispeed integration, Michel identified himself as “a committed European, but not a naïve and smug European,” as a European convinced that the EU should “persuade with an ideal and concrete results” (Prime Minister of Belgium, 2018). Council of the European Union: Seat: Council of the EU: Europa building, Brussels, … European Union (EU), international organization comprising 27 European countries and governing common economic, social, and security policies. This earned him the respect of many and the official title of “founding father of the EU” (European Commission, n.d.). At present, May 9 is celebrated annually as Europe Day. Renouncing Belgium’s official policies of neutrality and independence after World War II, Spaak was indeed not driven by the lofty ideal of a European federation, but by the belief that cooperation would be a better way to protect a small country’s interests: “Just like the Lilliputians kept Gulliver from going his own way, supranationalism, in Belgian eyes, became the small member states’ best defence mechanism vis-à-vis the large ones” (Coolsaet, 2014, p. 647; own translation).5 Likewise, it is important to note that his plans faced resistance from the ruling class and/or industry (Coolsaet, 1998; Falter, 2017; Van Kemseke, 2010). More specifically, 60% of the Belgian people declare trust in the European Parliament (EU28: 45%), 58% in the European Commission (EU28: 42%), and 52% in the European Central Bank (EU28: 39%) (Vertegenwoordiging van de Europese Commissie in België, 2018). Tijd om de balans op te maken. See current article 16(2) of the Treaty on European Union. For pets traveling to the EU by sea, the 10 days is extended by the duration of sea travel. See Stouthuysen, Meier, and Kavadias (2007) on the position of EU-related research in political science in Belgium more generally. After almost 50 years of negotiations, “an equilibrium has not yet been found” (Deschouwer & Reuchamps, 2013, p. 268). After all, what is a challenge for policy-makers is often an opportunity for scholars. 76–77). European Blues Union Belgium ————————————————-De EBC 2012 voting zit erop. European integration was “still left depoliticized” and “a vast-pro-integration consensus” was “firmly in place” (Bursens & Crum, 2010, p. 158). In fact, looking at the available numbers on transposition of law, the label “average student” seems more appropriate (Beyers & Bursens, 2006a, p. 176; own translation).22 The problems surrounding implementation have also been visible in the context of ratification. Situated between France and The Netherlands, the Kingdom of Belgium is often called the Essence of Europe. Roosevelt, 50 1050 Bruxelles Belgium veronique.kubben@ulb.be +32 2 650 30 73 Not only has support for European integration always come less naturally to the northern part than to the southern part of the country, it seems a sign of the changing times that the largest political party in Flanders—the Flemish nationalist Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie (NVA; New Flemish Alliance)—has exchanged its pro-European discourse for a more eurorealist one (Brack, Wolfs, & Van Hecke, 2017; Kerremans & Beyers, 1998; Pittoors, Wolfs, Van Hecke, & Bursens, 2016; Swenden, 2010).11 The party explains this choice with the need for concrete results and democratic legitimacy (N-VA, n.d.).12 Scholars, however, see less lofty reasons. This image was used by European Parliament president Antonio Tajani when welcoming Belgium’s prime minister Charles Michel to the “Future of Europe” debate series in May 2018. In a similar vein, Belgium has tried to give its three most recent memberships of the UN Security Council (1971–1972, 1991–1992, and 2007–2008) a European twist (Van Kemseke, 2007). This meaning is strongly supported by facts, with the city hosting the most numerous and the most important institutions. Jean-Luc Dehaene, who served two terms as prime minister between 1992 and 1999, was responsible for guiding the country into the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) by following a strict policy of austerity. Not even a world record process of 541 days of government formation following the 2010 elections has meant the end of it (Brans, Pattyn, & Bouckaert, 2016; Deschouwer & Reuchamps, 2013; Van Aelst & Louwerse, 2013; see also “Representation and Coordination.”). The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) The European Economic and Social Committee is an advisory body of the European Union. It is, however, important to recall why Spaak opted for cooperation among European countries in the first place. “Belgium is high on the list of destination ports because Antwerp and Zeebrugge are among … As such, communities are responsible for issues such as culture and education, and regions for agriculture and environment. After all, Belgian federalism carries some important “liabilities,” such as the preservation of the system’s bipolarity, particularly through the functioning of predominantly monolingual political parties (Swenden & Jans, 2006, p. 889). The numbers speak for themselves. The European Commission had asked the Belgian government to inspect the factory amid a heated public dispute between the 27-nation bloc and the Anglo-Swedish drugmaker. Competition and regulatory authorities now possess far-reaching powers to investigate companies and commercial arrangements, prohibit M&A deals, force divestment of merged businesses, review markets and impose penalties or the recovery of illegal aids. The party sees the future of Belgium as a confederation of Flanders and Wallonia. The cause, but also the consequence, of that is past reforms going in the same direction. Helping businesses in Belgium prepare for Brexit impact Spaak’s membership of the Socialist party makes him the exception to the rule. Its capital is Brussels and the official languages in Belgium are Dutch, French, and German. In fact, while Eurobarometer reports for Belgium reveal high degrees of satisfaction, lower scores are reported as well. Besides “by default” (Belgium was not created as a federal state, but has organically grown into a federal one) and “unfinished” (the country’s final status is yet unclear), “bipolar” ranks high on the list of attributes, as do “centrifugal,” “dual,” and “consociational” (Deschouwer, 2012, pp. It is a founding member of the European Union and is home to its headquarters. The possibilities and realities of this system have attracted quite a lot of scholarly interest. For the time being, Belgium is a federal state composed of three regions (Flemish Region, Walloon Region, and Brussels Capital Region) and three communities (Flemish Community, French Community, and German-speaking Community).19 Since the Maastricht Treaty, these federated entities have been empowered to represent the Belgian state at the European level for issues falling within their competences. A recent study that looked at counterfeiting in shipping containers ranked Belgium as one of the top ten ports of entry for fake goods in the European Union. Belgium is widely seen as one of the most important supporters of European integration, even the most loyal one supporting the creation of a European federation (Deschouwer, 2012). Two sets of conclusions can be drawn. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Verhofstadt has been member of the European Parliament since 2009, leading the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats (ALDE) fraction. This is not so much because Brussels became the unofficial EU capital by historical accident, but rather because support for European integration has not been constant throughout the years or across the country.3 As such, this part should be read together with the second one, which concentrates on Belgium’s functioning as a federal state in European policy- and decision-making. As the CETA episode illustrated here, decisions that involve competences of different levels—such as the signing and ratification of EU trade agreements—must be approved unanimously by these various levels. Focusing on coordination and representation, the system reconciles both these principles with the observation that EU member states need to speak with one voice in Council meetings. Indeed, “the quarrels” between two language groups, the Flemish and the Francophones, define the country—literally as well as figuratively (Craeybeckx, Meynen, & Witte, 2009, p. 361). The second meaning requires more detailed consideration. It is clear in any case that while European integration has shaped the functioning of Belgium as a federal state, the opposite holds true as well. Federal institutions play a major role in this regard, mainly (but not exclusively) the Directorate for European Affairs and Coordination (Beyers & Bursens, 2006a). A flatland crisscrossed by canals […] Of course, compared with their colleagues in most other member states, EU researchers in Belgium have an important practical advantage here. Importantly, this veto slowed but did not stop his European career. Indeed, as director-general of the foreign ministry, Davignon supported the European project in its first steps towards foreign policy integration. What's New. Perhaps most importantly, should the EU and federated entities be seen as “[u]nintended partners in unravelling the Belgian state” (Swenden, 2010, p. 16) or does the EU rather come to Belgium’s “rescue” (Beyers & Bursens, 2006b, p. 1057)? The logistical burden of rotation and the generous provision of (office) space by the Belgian government have created an almost irreversible reality. 2. Customs checks whether the goods can be imported to Belgium. Seen in this light, it comes as no surprise that the city’s functioning as the center of EU bureaucracy is a central theme in the “first great EU novel,” that is, Robert Menasse’s Die Hauptstadt (The Capital) (Richter, 2017). Indeed, change, like formalization, requires a unanimous decision by the member states. It is in this context that the idea to build an official capital for the EU in Auschwitz emerges. 10. Current list of all 27 European Union countries. A full spectrum of opinions could be found at the time of writing. Tajani tweeted the following: “Belgium is at the heart of Europe in every sense, a founding member and long-standing champion of the European project. Carles Puigdemont Spain European Parliament Barcelona European Union Clara Ponsati Belgium Waterloo Germany Britain Spanish Popular Party Brussels 1 /1 Spain Catalonia The first agreement establishing the European Economic Community was signed in 1957 by six countries: Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Formed in 1958 the European Union is an economic and political union between 28 member countries. Job title: Council of the European Union - Positive Action Programme for Trainees with a disability Deadline: 15/03/2021 - 12:00 Location(s): Brussels (Belgium) The aim is to give the debate, policy and legislation on fundamental rights a solid basis and precise coordination. The European Coal and Steel Community had six founding members: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. At the time of writing, he was Brexit negotiator for the European Parliament. The future is here. The 2010 EU presidency was pioneering for a second reason as well: It was the first one under Lisbon rules. In fact, ever higher scores can be found for support for the economic and monetary union, the common migration policy, and the common energy policy.4 Combined with a preparedness to take responsibility and make sacrifices where necessary, these numbers perpetuate the idea that the Belgians, who are known as the bravest of all Gauls since Caesar’s De Bello Gallico, are the most European of all Europeans. After having experienced an environment that regards the EU’s wishes and demands with increasing suspicion, it should come as no surprise that it intends to continue this pragmatic line of introducing the EU into this body during these two years (Mandat de la Belgique au Conseil de Sécurité (2019–2020), 2018). Scholars have asked operational questions when exploring Belgium’s functioning as a federal state of regions and communities, notably on coordination and representation. Drawing on his experience with the Benelux, he was able to leave his mark on both the preparatory stages (as is evident from the terms “Spaak Committee” and “Spaak Report” themselves) and the final negotiations (Laurent, 1970). Certainly, as is the case in Menasse’s volume, the Belgian federation can indeed be seen in terms of conflict, crisis, and failure. This interest has not been limited to the origins and evolution of the involvement of these entities in European decision-making. In hindsight, it was only logical that Belgium’s stint was concluded in such a bold way. 19. Some say CETA should be mentioned in this regard (see also “Introduction”). First, Belgium’s capital, Brussels, qualifies as the unofficial capital of the European Union. The same goes for the rather fundamental question of whether the European Union and federated entities should be seen as unintended partners in the hollowing out of the federal state or whether the opposite holds true and the European Union is coming to Belgium’s rescue. Convinced that there is reason for celebration, however, Commission officials respond with a “Big Jubilee Project” to restore the institution’s image. Looking at the first decades of integration, three additional names are worth mentioning here: Spaak’s former chef de cabinet Etienne Davignon and prime ministers Leo Tindemans and Wilfried Martens. On paper at least, there is a clear division of power between the various levels. More fundamental questions have been raised as well, notably whether the EU and federated entities should be seen as “[u]nintended partners in unravelling the Belgian state” (Swenden, 2010, p. 16) or whether the EU comes to its “rescue” (Beyers & Bursens, 2006b, p. 1057). As the various Belgian actors have to sing from the same sheet, coordination is crucial and, much like in the EU, a daily reality. As of November 2017, 84% of the Belgian people declared trust in the common energy policy (EU28: 72%), 81% in the economic and monetary union (EU28: 61%), and 77% in the common migration policy (EU28: 69%) (Vertegenwoordiging van de European Commissie in België, 2018). See the work of Swenden and Jans for why the Walloon demand for socioeconomic autonomy has been not only more recent but also weaker (Swenden & Jans, 2006). The EU’s common currency is the euro. He was the party’s Spitzenkandidat in 2014 and candidate for the position of European Parliament president in 2017. The observation that Belgium’s functioning as a federal state confronts us with an even more complex reality brings us to the second set of conclusions. It was created this way in 1830 and evolved into a federal state following a phased process of state reform that started in 1970, meaning that decision-making power is no longer the prerogative of the federal institutions.17 As this process is executed “without a master plan,” nobody knows how many more rounds will follow or what the final outcome will be (Swenden, 2013, p. 374).18 Pacification has been the underlying ambition, however, aiming at peaceful coexistence between the Flemish north and the Francophone south. The Convention originated from the Laeken Declaration, which was the capstone of Belgium’s 2001 EU presidency. A few years later, however, the Belgian government decided to play the Brussels card for hosting the new institutions when the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) were established. The remainder of this article explores both of these characteristics in more detail, focusing on evidence, explanations, and implications. When the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was created by the Treaty of Paris in 1951, the government did not support the proposal that Brussels would serve as seat of the new institutions. It also includes the realities of cooperation and representation, both for common and less common decisions, such as treaty revisions. This explains why the Belgian government advocated the creation of a Special Council composed of national ministers in the context of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), was hesitant to join the European Defence Community (EDC), and almost failed to sign the Treaty of Rome (Beyers & Bursens, 2006a; Falter, 2017).6, While Spaak is the only Belgian that made it onto the EU’s official list of founding fathers, he is not the only one that has held the pen of European history in his hands. Set against the backdrop of the European Commission’s 50th anniversary celebration, this novel brings the above-mentioned Belgian traits together in a unique way. New Zealand Embassy, Brussels, Belgium Accredited to | Belgium, Bulgaria, European Union, Luxembourg, Moldova, Romania Home / Countries ... European Union … Presenting Belgium with the “most significant foreign policy challenge in decades,” it makes “a frank discussion” about European integration “unavoidable” (Mattelaer, 2017b, p. 2, 2017a, p. 4). Following the 2014 federal elections, it also joined the federal government. The answer to this question seems to have become more complex over time; scholars find evidence of both cooperation and confrontation. 24. The Société Générale feared interference in its mining activities in Congo and, apparently influenced by former prime minister Paul van Zeeland, the new King Baudouin was reluctant to agree to supranationalism. In 1957, the Treaty of Rome established a common market. It does so in the form of a complex system of coordination and representation, which is aimed at ensuring a single Belgian voice in EU decision-making. Belgium is not the only federation among the EU member states nor the only one aimed at pacification. This metaphor has a double meaning, a literal and a figurative one. It stands out, though, for being “the ultimate supporter of the post-war supranational European integration effort” (Coolsaet & Soetendorp, 2000, p. 142; see also Soetendorp, 1999), “the most radical in its pro-European rhetoric” (Kerremans & Beyers, 1998, p. 29), and “the most reflexively EU-oriented country of the Western European countries” (Whitman & Tonra, 2017, p. 45). The Belgian language border runs across the middle of the country, resulting in a deeply divided country: “Like the people of San Francisco, who know that their city is built on a deep geological fault and who realize once in a while that the foundations are not at all stable, citizens are waiting for the Belgian ‘big one’” (Deschouwer, 2012, p. 243). Brussels has been home to the European Commission, the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers for many years. Legally they all … More recent additions are the European Council and the European External Action Service. The reason behind this change seems to be the emerging process of federalization within the country (see also “Belgium as Federal Member State”). This account has no valid subscription for this site. Belgium joins this body again as non-permanent member in 2019 and 2020. Certainly, the words and deeds of leading politicians and administrators both past and present feed into this image of commitment, like the sobriquets, prizes, commemorative coins, honorary doctorates, and even building names resulting therefrom (Beyers & Bursens, 2006a). European Union: Belgium As A New Springboard Into The EU? Others disagree with this idea of a forced maneuver and instead see “a strategic move to own the issue in a less radical fashion,” with the party emerging as a moderate, and thus more acceptable, alternative for voters dissatisfied with European integration (Brack et al., 2017, p. 13). Belgium has an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi). During the last stint, for instance, it tried to upgrade the weekly information-sharing meetings between the EU member states in New York as well as the interaction between Brussels and New York (Drieskens, 2009; Drieskens, Marchesi, & Kerremans, 2007). Which perspective one takes depends on which aspect one deems most important, but it also tends to be guided by normative considerations on what the future should look like (Swenden, 2013). It shows that Belgian support for European integration is relatively high compared with many other member states, but also that nuance is needed. The author wishes to thank the reviewer for pointing out that Volksunie was not against European integration as such, but favored a Europe of regions rather than of states. Most notably, the Belgian population is very negative about enlargement.16 Some have read these scores as evidence for the Belgian consensus on European integration having come “under challenge” (Swenden, 2010, p. 18); others go further and warn that they may even be evidence of a development “at the expense of further integration” (Bijsmans, 2017, p. 359). Maybe the best illustration of Belgium being “a Rubik’s cube of parliamentary complexity” is the administration of languages (Morris, 2014). Koningin Elisabethlei 22 2018 Antwerpen Belgium, https://www.provincieantwerpen.be/europadirect, https://www.oost-vlaanderen.be/europadirect, https://www.west-vlaanderen.be/europedirect, Avenue Sergent Vrithoff 2 5000 Namur Belgium, http://www.ugent.be/re/epir/nl/afdelingen/europeesrecht/instituten/bibliotheek/overzicht.htm, http://www.coleurope.eu/research/college-libraries/bruges-library, ULB - Bibliothèque des Sciences humaines, Section Sciences sociales et politiques, Av. The Belgian Consulate in Belgium supports Belgian citizens through its consular services, if they: CETA is not the only example here (see also “Introduction”). TMT Predictions 2020. Then prime minister Guy Verhofstadt has advocated the creation of a “United States of Europe” for many years (Kerremans & Drieskens, 2002, 2003; Verhofstadt, 2005). Comparison is used here to gauge the uniqueness of the Belgian case, with scholars comparing the Belgian experience with that of neighboring countries (Bursens, Beyers, & Donas, 2014; Bursens, Hielscher, & van Keulen, 2015). 12. In both policy and research, the country is widely known as the “heart of Europe.” It even sells itself to the outside world in this way. A closer look at data, decisions, and developments shows, however, that while support for European integration is widespread, it is not omnipresent either in time or in place. Competition & European Union Belgium. Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy in which the king is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government in a multi-party system. Its currency is € (Euro), from Belgium became a member of the Eurozone on January 1, 1999. The complexity does not stop here, though: in border regions, inhabitants of a number of municipalities can ask for language-particular facilities, so they can use their own language when dealing with local government. The European Union is one of the largest economies in the world. Support for the European institutions is higher in Belgium than in most member states. Belgium is one of the six founding members of European integration, but it is often seen as a special one. The Commission publishes a full set of macroeconomic forecasts for the EU and its Member States. Falter (2017) shows that prime minister Achiel Van Acker was displeased by the French decision to impose trade barriers on Belgian endive as well as by Spaak’s approval of Belgium’s financial contribution being larger than that of the Netherlands. The institutions of the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region were merged in 1980. ULB - Bibliothèque des Sciences humaines, Section Sciences sociales et politiques, Av. Belgium is seen as “a very good pupil in the European Union class” (Deschouwer, 2012, p. 15). 17. Likewise, neither was it a coincidence that Belgium was keen to step in for the United Kingdom when it became clear that the latter would give up its scheduled 2017 EU presidency to concentrate on Brexit, nor that this was considered a valid option within European circles (Belga, 2016).